Cooperation Between CCP and KMT During the Second Sino-Japanese War

Overview

The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) marked a period of tentative cooperation between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Kuomintang (KMT), driven by external threats from Japan. This era saw shifts in both domestic politics and international alliances, including changes in Comintern policies towards communist parties globally and adjustments in KMT’s anti-Western stance. Despite these efforts to collaborate against a common enemy, internal tensions remained high, leading to a fragile alliance that ultimately could not withstand the pressure of full-scale war.

Context

The early 20th century was marked by significant political upheaval in China, including the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the rise of various revolutionary movements. The CCP and the KMT emerged as major rivals vying for power during this time. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, cooperation between these two groups was short-lived due to ideological differences and competing visions for China’s future. However, by the later 1930s, a shared external threat from Japan prompted renewed efforts at collaboration.

Timeline

• 1927: The KMT under Chiang Kai-shek establishes control over much of China.
• 1928: The CCP and KMT split after the failure of joint revolutionary efforts.
• 1934-1935: Long March by the CCP, leading to a shift in its strategic focus towards rural areas and guerrilla warfare.
• 1935: Changes in Comintern policy encourage communist parties to form alliances with other anti-fascist groups.
• 1936: Xi’an Incident leads to negotiations between the CCP and KMT for joint resistance against Japan.
• 1937: Japanese invasion of China marks the beginning of full-scale war, prompting a formal alliance between the CCP and KMT.
• 1938: The Second Sino-Japanese War intensifies as Japan captures major Chinese cities like Nanjing.
• 1940: Internal conflicts within the United Front begin to surface as both sides vie for control and influence.
• 1945: End of World War II in Europe marks a turning point, leading to renewed competition between CCP and KMT.

Key Terms and Concepts

• Comintern (Communist International): Established in 1919 by the Soviet Union, it aimed to promote world communism through international solidarity.
• Second Sino-Japanese War: A conflict that began in 1937 when Japan invaded China, lasting until 1945 and eventually merging with World War II.
• United Front: Term used to describe temporary alliances formed between communist parties and other political entities during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
• Long March (1934–1935): A strategic retreat by the CCP that allowed it to regroup and reorganize, setting the stage for future resistance against Japanese forces.
• Xi’an Incident: A 1936 event where Chiang Kai-shek was detained by his own troops who were sympathetic to the CCP, leading to negotiations between the two parties.
• Nanjing Massacre (December 1937): One of the most brutal episodes during the Second Sino-Japanese War, involving widespread atrocities committed by Japanese forces.

Key Figures and Groups

• Chiang Kai-shek: Leader of the KMT who was instrumental in establishing a nationalist government but also faced internal challenges from communist opposition.
• Mao Zedong: Founding member of the CCP and later leader of China after the war, known for his role in organizing resistance against Japanese forces during the early stages of the conflict.
• Comintern: Played a crucial role in shaping communist strategies worldwide through directives aimed at fostering alliances with other anti-fascist groups.
• Chinese Communist Party (CCP): Initially focused on urban revolution but shifted towards rural guerrilla warfare after the Long March, eventually becoming a significant force against Japanese invaders.

Mechanisms and Processes

• CCP’s shift -> Guerrilla Warfare Strategy -> Collaboration with KMT -> Formation of United Front -> Joint resistance against Japan
• Changes in Comintern Policy -> Encouragement of Popular Fronts -> Cooperation between CCP and KMT -> Shift in KMT’s Anti-Western Stance -> Increased International Support

Deep Background

The 1930s saw significant shifts in global politics, with the rise of fascist regimes in Europe leading to increased international tensions. In this context, the Soviet Union under Stalin began reevaluating its foreign policy and sought to form alliances with other anti-fascist groups worldwide. This shift influenced the Comintern’s directives towards communist parties globally, encouraging them to collaborate more closely with moderate left-wing movements and nationalist groups.

In China, the KMT had been consolidating power through military campaigns against warlords and rival political factions since the early 1920s. However, by the mid-1930s, the growing threat from Japan necessitated a reassessment of its stance towards communism. The CCP, weakened after internal purges and defeated in urban uprisings, retreated to rural areas where it could regroup and rebuild under Mao Zedong’s leadership.

The Long March (1934-1935) was pivotal for the CCP as it allowed them to establish strongholds in remote regions of western China. This strategic move not only saved the party from potential annihilation but also positioned it favorably against Japanese aggression, which began to intensify in the late 1930s.

Explanation and Importance

The cooperation between the CCP and KMT during this period was driven by a shared external threat rather than mutual trust or ideological agreement. This alliance, while crucial for resisting Japan, remained fragile due to ongoing internal conflicts and differing long-term goals. The Comintern’s shift towards Popular Front policies encouraged communist parties globally to form alliances with other anti-fascist movements, which influenced the CCP’s decision to collaborate with the KMT.

Despite initial successes in joint resistance efforts, the alliance faced significant challenges as both sides continued to jockey for power and influence within China. The United Front, while effective in providing a united front against Japanese aggression, ultimately could not sustain itself beyond the immediate threat of invasion due to underlying political and ideological differences.

Comparative Insight

Comparing this period with the broader context of World War II reveals similarities in how communist parties globally adapted their strategies in response to fascist threats. For instance, while communist parties in Europe also formed alliances with other anti-fascist groups under Comintern directives, the specific dynamics within China were unique due to its divided political landscape and ongoing civil war between the KMT and CCP.

Extended Analysis

• Strategic Shifts: The CCP’s transition from urban revolution to rural guerrilla warfare was a critical strategic shift that allowed it to survive and eventually flourish.
• International Influence: Changes in Comintern policies had far-reaching impacts on communist movements globally, influencing alliances and strategies beyond China.
• Internal Dynamics: Ongoing tensions between the KMT and CCP during the war highlighted the complex nature of their relationship, which was shaped by both shared goals and competing interests.
• Legacy Effects: The alliance forged during this period laid important groundwork for future political alignments within China, though it also set the stage for post-war competition.

Quiz

Open Thinking Questions

• How did the Second Sino-Japanese War impact long-term relations between the CCP and KMT?
• What role did international support play in China’s ability to resist Japanese aggression during this period?
• To what extent did the cooperation between the CCP and KMT reflect broader global trends in anti-fascist resistance?

Conclusion

The period of tentative cooperation between the Chinese Communist Party and the Kuomintang during the Second Sino-Japanese War represents a complex interplay of external threats, internal political dynamics, and shifting international alliances. While it provided a united front against Japanese aggression, the underlying tensions and differing long-term goals ensured that this alliance was inherently unstable. This period set the stage for future conflicts within China, reflecting broader global trends in anti-fascist resistance during World War II.