European Dominance and Globalization: The Late Nineteenth Century

Overview

By 1900, European powers and their colonial offshoots controlled most of the world, both directly through colonies and indirectly via economic influence. This era saw a unique configuration where the rest of the globe largely followed Europe’s lead in terms of trade, culture, and political systems. The period leading up to 1914 marked an early peak of globalization, characterized by extensive international exchange and interconnected economies.

Context

The late nineteenth century was a time when European nations had expanded their influence through colonialism and imperialism over vast stretches of the globe. This dominance stemmed from several factors: technological advancements, economic superiority, military might, and cultural diffusion. The Industrial Revolution had given Europe an edge in manufacturing and trade, leading to rapid urbanization and industrial expansion at home while exporting goods and culture abroad. Colonial empires were established across Africa, Asia, and the Americas, often justified through racial and civilizational narratives that positioned Europeans as superior to other peoples.

Timeline

• 1870: The end of the Franco-Prussian War solidified German unification under a powerful centralized state.
• 1885: The Berlin Conference established international rules for dividing Africa among European powers, marking the height of the “Scramble for Africa.”
• 1894: Japan defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War, signaling a shift in power dynamics and weakening Chinese influence over its neighbors.
• 1896–1902: The Boer Wars in South Africa highlighted European colonial interests and conflicts with local resistance.
• 1897: Britain annexed Zanzibar after a brief conflict, demonstrating the extent of British imperial reach.
• 1904: France and Great Britain signed the Entente Cordiale, easing tensions between former rivals and setting the stage for future alliances.
• 1905: The Russo-Japanese War ended in defeat for Russia, highlighting Japan’s growing power and challenging European dominance in Asia.
• 1912–1913: Balkan Wars reshaped the political map of southeastern Europe, leading to tensions that contributed to World War I.

Key Terms and Concepts

Colonial Empire: A territory or territories governed by a distant country. Colonies were often established for economic exploitation, cultural expansion, and strategic control.

• Imperialism: The policy of extending a nation’s power and influence through diplomacy, economics, military conquests, or colonization.
• Globalization: The process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.
• Industrial Revolution: A period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840 during which predominantly agrarian, rural societies in Europe and later the Americas and Japan became industrial and urban.
• Berlin Conference (1885): An important gathering of European powers that established international rules for dividing Africa among imperialist European nations.
• Entente Cordiale: A series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between France and the United Kingdom which marked a significant shift from centuries of hostility, especially during the Napoleonic period.

Key Figures and Groups

Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898): The first Chancellor of Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm I who played a key role in unifying German states into a single nation.

• Joseph Chamberlain (1836–1914): A British politician and colonial administrator, he advocated for imperial expansion and was influential in early negotiations that led to the Entente Cordiale.
• Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881): A British statesman who served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He played a significant role in advancing British interests overseas, particularly in India.
• Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859–1941): The last German Emperor and King of Prussia, known for his aggressive foreign policy that contributed to international tensions leading up to World War I.

Mechanisms and Processes

-> Technological advancements -> Economic superiority -> Military dominance -> Cultural diffusion -> Establishment of colonial empires -> Increased global trade -> Interconnected economies -> Prelude to globalization

Deep Background

The roots of European dominance in the late nineteenth century can be traced back to earlier centuries when European nations began exploring and colonizing other continents. The Age of Exploration (15th-17th centuries) laid the groundwork for later imperial expansions by establishing trade routes, founding colonies, and spreading Christianity. By the eighteenth century, the British Empire, along with French, Dutch, and Spanish empires, had already established significant footholds in the Americas, Asia, and Africa.

The Industrial Revolution (circa 1760-1840) accelerated this process by providing Europe with the technological and economic advantages needed to sustain colonial rule. Innovations like steam power, railroads, and mass production not only boosted European economies but also facilitated military conquests and administrative control over distant territories.

Throughout the nineteenth century, European powers competed fiercely for colonies and resources, leading to various conflicts such as the Crimean War (1853-1856) and the Franco-Austrian War (1859). The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 was a pivotal moment that formalized European claims on Africa, setting the stage for rapid imperial expansion across the continent.

These factors combined to create an environment where European civilization became dominant worldwide. As Europe’s economic and military power grew, so did its cultural influence through literature, art, education, and religion. This period saw significant changes in global trade patterns as well, with new technologies such as steamships and telegraphy facilitating faster communication and transportation between distant parts of the world.

Explanation and Importance

The dominance of European powers by 1900 was a result of centuries-long processes involving technological advancement, economic growth, military strength, and cultural diffusion. This period marked a unique moment in history where one civilization asserted itself as preeminent globally. The interconnected nature of economies, facilitated by improvements like the telegraph and steamships, contributed to early globalization.

The consequences of this era included widespread exploitation of colonized peoples, significant shifts in global power dynamics, and increased cultural homogenization around Western norms. While European dominance brought some benefits such as technological transfer and infrastructure development in colonies, it also led to profound suffering and resistance from oppressed populations. The legacy of colonialism continues to impact international relations and societal structures today.

Understanding this era helps contextualize subsequent historical developments, including the lead-up to World War I and the eventual decline of European empires post-World War II. It highlights how deeply interconnected global systems can be shaped by powerful actors, leading to far-reaching impacts on societies worldwide.

Comparative Insight

The period of European dominance from 1870–1914 shares some similarities with earlier eras of Chinese and Islamic expansion but differs in scale and impact due to the industrial capabilities and global reach of European nations. Unlike earlier empires that focused primarily on contiguous regions, European powers exerted influence across multiple continents simultaneously, setting a precedent for modern global interaction patterns.

Extended Analysis

Technological Superiority: Europe’s technological advancements, including railroads, steamships, telegraphs, and industrial machinery, provided significant military and economic advantages. These technologies enabled rapid communication, efficient transportation of goods and troops, and mass production, giving European nations an edge over competitors.

• Economic Structures: The rise of capitalist economies in Europe fostered extensive trade networks, investment opportunities, and resource extraction from colonies. This economic structure was integral to maintaining global dominance through control of markets and raw materials.
• Military Strategies: European military strategies were shaped by technological innovations and colonial experiences. From naval blockades to rapid troop deployment via railways, these strategies allowed for effective control over vast territories and suppression of resistance movements.
• Cultural Influence: Cultural diffusion included language spread (English, French), educational models, religious practices, and artistic styles. These cultural elements helped solidify European dominance by integrating local societies into a broader Western-centric framework.

Quiz

Open Thinking Questions

• How did technological advancements in Europe contribute to its global dominance?
• What were the long-term impacts of European colonial rule on colonized regions?
• In what ways did cultural diffusion from Europe affect non-European societies?

Conclusion

The period between 1870 and 1914 represents a unique chapter in world history where one civilization, Europe, established its supremacy globally. This dominance was characterized by extensive technological advancement, economic prowess, military power, and cultural influence that reshaped global interactions and set the stage for modern globalization.