Persian Decline in the Early 18th Century

Overview

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Persia faced a series of challenges from both internal and external forces, leading to significant political instability and territorial loss. The Afghan revolt against the Safavid shahs and Russian and Ottoman encroachment on Persian territory marked the decline of Safavid power and influence in the region. This period saw the end of Shi’ite rule as an Afghan ruler took control of Persia’s throne in 1722, setting a precedent for future foreign interventions and internal conflicts.

Context

During the early eighteenth century, Persia (modern-day Iran) was experiencing significant political and religious turmoil. The Safavid dynasty had ruled since the sixteenth century, establishing Shi’ite Islam as the state religion and maintaining control over much of western Asia. However, by the beginning of the eighteenth century, internal strife, including sectarian conflicts between Shiites and Sunnis, weakened the Safavids’ grip on power. Simultaneously, European powers such as Russia began to expand their influence in Central Asian territories, positioning themselves strategically for future dominance.

Timeline

• 1708: Russian ruler sends an embassy to Isfahan, aiming to establish diplomatic relations and explore potential trade opportunities.
• 1719-1722: Afghans revolt against the Safavid shahs, leading to a full-scale war that ends with the establishment of an independent Sunni Afghan state under Mahmud in 1722.
• 1722: The last Safavid shah abdicates, marking the end of Shi’ite rule in Persia. An Afghan ruler takes control of the throne.
• 1723: Russian forces seize the strategically important ports of Derbent and Baku, further expanding their influence into Persian territories.
• 1724: Russia and Turkey agree on a partition plan for Persia, dividing the region between them to secure their interests in the area.
• 1724: Internal strife continues with a massacre ordered by an increasingly unstable shah against potential Safavid sympathizers in Isfahan.

Key Terms and Concepts

Persia (Iran): The historical name for modern-day Iran, characterized by its rich cultural heritage and strategic importance in the Middle East.

Safavids: A ruling dynasty that established Shi’ite Islam as the state religion of Persia and ruled from 1501 to 1722. They were known for their patronage of arts and literature.

Afghans: A group of Sunni Muslims who rebelled against Safavid rule, eventually establishing an independent state in Persia under Mahmud in 1722.

Russians: The Russian Empire expanded its influence into Central Asia during the early eighteenth century, sending diplomatic missions to Isfahan and later seizing key ports like Derbent and Baku.

Turks (Ottomans): The Ottoman Empire also sought to expand its influence in Persia by participating in a partition agreement with Russia in 1724.

Nadir Shah: A military leader who eventually restored Persian power, though the era of significant regional influence had largely ended for Persia by then.

Key Figures and Groups

• Mahmud (Afghan ruler): An Afghan chieftain who took control of Persia’s throne in 1722 after overthrowing the Safavid dynasty, marking a shift to Sunni rule.
• Russian Ruler: The leader of Russia at this time, who sought to expand Russian influence by sending diplomatic missions and military expeditions into Persian territories.
• Ottoman Turks: The ruling elite of the Ottoman Empire, which entered into an agreement with Russia to partition Persia in 1724.

Mechanisms and Processes

• Internal Conflict -> Religious Tensions -> Revolt by Afghans -> Establishment of Afghan Rule -> Russian and Turkish Expansion
• Safavid Decline -> Partition Agreements -> Territorial Losses -> Economic Instability -> Internal Strife

Deep Background

In the late seventeenth century, Persia’s Safavids were already facing internal challenges due to religious strife between Shiites and Sunnis. The Afghan tribes in eastern Persia, who were predominantly Sunni Muslims, began to revolt against the Shi’ite rulers of the Safavid dynasty. Meanwhile, European powers such as Russia and Turkey sought to expand their influence into Central Asia through diplomacy and military expeditions.

The Russian Empire had been growing in power since the late seventeenth century, expanding its territory eastward towards Persia. In 1708, they sent an embassy to Isfahan to establish diplomatic relations with the Safavids, hoping to secure economic benefits and strategic alliances. As the Safavid dynasty weakened due to internal conflicts and religious tensions, Russia saw an opportunity to seize control of key ports like Derbent and Baku.

Similarly, the Ottoman Empire was also expanding its influence in the region, seeking to gain control over territories that were part of Persia’s sphere of influence. The partition agreement between Russia and Turkey in 1724 reflected their shared interest in dividing Persian territory and securing their own interests.

Explanation and Importance

The early eighteenth century marked a significant turning point for Persia as internal conflicts led to the collapse of Safavid rule, followed by foreign interventions from Russia and Turkey. This period saw the end of Shi’ite rule in Persia and the establishment of an independent Afghan state under Mahmud, who took control of the throne in 1722. The partition agreement between Russia and Turkey further weakened Persian sovereignty, leading to territorial losses and economic instability.

These events were crucial because they signaled the decline of Persian influence over a vast region that had been dominated by Persia for centuries. While there was a brief recovery under Nadir Shah later in the century, the era when Persia could shape regional politics on a large scale had effectively ended until the twentieth century.

Comparative Insight

The collapse of Safavid power and subsequent foreign interventions can be compared to similar periods in other empires such as the decline of the Ottoman Empire during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Both cases reflect the challenges faced by traditional monarchies when confronted with internal strife, religious tensions, and expanding European influence.

Extended Analysis

• Religious Tensions: Sectarian conflicts between Shiites and Sunnis fueled the Afghan revolt against Safavid rule.
• Russian Expansionism: Diplomatic missions and military expeditions aimed at securing Russian interests in Central Asia.
• Turkish Interests: The partition agreement with Russia reflected Ottoman ambitions to expand its influence into Persian territories.
• Economic Instability: Territorial losses and political upheaval led to economic difficulties for Persia.

Quiz

Open Thinking Questions

• How might the outcome have been different if Russia and Turkey had not agreed on a partition of Persia in 1724?
• What were the long-term consequences for Persia after the collapse of Safavid rule?
• In what ways did religious differences contribute to political instability in early eighteenth-century Persia?

Conclusion

The events of the early eighteenth century marked a significant decline for Persia, with internal strife and foreign interventions weakening its power. The establishment of an Afghan state under Sunni leadership and subsequent Russian and Turkish expansions signaled the end of Persian dominance over Central Asia until much later periods when new forms of leverage emerged.