The Eastern Question: Nationalism and Empire in 19th Century Europe

Overview

The Eastern Question marked a pivotal moment in European history, signaling the start of intense competition over the disintegrating Ottoman Empire. This period saw complex nationalist movements, religious rivalries, and shifting alliances among major powers. The Greek War of Independence (1821-1830) exemplified these dynamics, with Russia supporting the Orthodox Christian Greeks against the Muslim Ottomans. The outcome laid the groundwork for further conflicts in the Balkans, where ethnic and religious tensions continued to simmer well into the 20th century.

Context

The Eastern Question emerged during a time of significant geopolitical upheaval in Europe following the Napoleonic Wars. The Vienna Settlement of 1815 established a new balance of power but failed to address issues in Ottoman-controlled regions, which remained volatile due to deep ethnic and religious divisions. As nationalism spread across Europe, it fueled desires for independence among various peoples within the multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire. Simultaneously, Russia’s traditional rivalry with the Ottomans intensified under Tsarist ambitions to expand into Southeastern Europe.

Timeline

• 1807: Treaty of Tilsit between France and Russia; early hints of Russian support for Greek independence.
• 1821: Start of the Greek War of Independence, marking a significant shift in Ottoman territories’ stability.
• 1827: Battle of Navarino, where British, French, and Russian fleets defeated the Ottomans, solidifying external intervention.
• 1830: Treaty of Constantinople; Greece recognized as an independent state under international guarantees.
• 1853-1856: Crimean War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire with European involvement; tensions over control in the Balkans escalate.
• 1878: Congress of Berlin redefines borders and spheres of influence, setting the stage for further conflicts.
• 1912-1913: First and Second Balkan Wars erupt due to unresolved nationalistic ambitions among Balkan states.

Key Terms and Concepts

Eastern Question: The diplomatic challenge concerning the fate of the declining Ottoman Empire’s European territories in the 19th century, involving rivalries between major European powers.

Nationalism: A political ideology that emphasizes the importance of ethnic or cultural identity as a basis for statehood, often leading to demands for self-determination and autonomy.

Greek War of Independence (1821-1830): A conflict where Greek revolutionaries fought against Ottoman rule with support from European powers, resulting in Greece’s recognition as an independent kingdom.

Crimean War: A significant military confrontation between Russia and the Ottoman Empire involving multiple European allies; it highlighted competing imperial ambitions in Southeastern Europe and the Near East.

Congress of Berlin (1878): An international conference aimed at resolving disputes arising from the Russo-Turkish War, leading to redrawing borders and influencing future Balkan conflicts.

Key Figures and Groups

Tsar Nicholas I of Russia: A key figure who sought to expand Russian influence in Southeastern Europe through support for Orthodox Christians within the Ottoman Empire.

Lord Byron (George Gordon Byron): An influential British poet who supported Greek independence, raising awareness among Western Europeans about the plight of Greeks under Ottoman rule.

Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II: The ruler during the initial stages of the Greek War of Independence, struggling to maintain control over his empire’s European territories.

Greek Revolutionaries (Filiki Eteria): A secret society instrumental in organizing the Greek rebellion against Ottoman rule; their actions spurred external intervention and support from other nations.

Mechanisms and Processes

• Nationalism -> Ethnic tensions rise within multi-ethnic empires like the Ottoman.
• Ethnic Tensions -> Religious conflicts escalate among diverse populations (e.g., Orthodox Christians vs. Muslims).
• Diplomatic Alliances -> European powers intervene to protect strategic interests or religious groups.
• Military Confrontations -> External support leads to armed conflicts, challenging established power dynamics.

Deep Background

The Eastern Question was rooted in long-term historical processes such as the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of nationalism across Europe. The Ottomans had maintained control over diverse regions through a combination of military might and religious tolerance, but this system broke down due to internal weaknesses and external pressures. As nationalist movements gained momentum throughout Europe, they found fertile ground among populations within the Ottoman territories who desired independence or greater autonomy. This era saw increased competition between major powers like Russia and Britain for influence in strategic regions.

Explanation and Importance

The Eastern Question represented a complex interplay of nationalistic aspirations, religious differences, and imperial ambitions that reshaped European politics and borders over nearly two centuries. The Greek War of Independence set an important precedent by demonstrating how external support could aid internal rebellions against the Ottoman Empire. This event underscored the intricate nature of international relations during this period, where seemingly local conflicts had global implications. Understanding these dynamics helps explain subsequent events like the Balkan Wars and World War I.

Comparative Insight

The Eastern Question can be compared to similar issues in other parts of the world, such as the decline of the Austro-Hungarian Empire leading to the formation of new nation-states after World War I. Both scenarios highlight how imperial collapse leads to nationalist movements that reshape geopolitical landscapes.

Extended Analysis

Ethnic and Religious Tensions: The coexistence of multiple ethnic and religious groups within the Ottoman Empire created inherent tensions, which intensified as nationalism spread.

• Imperial Ambitions: Major European powers sought to expand their influence in Southeastern Europe through support for various nationalist movements or direct military intervention.
• International Diplomacy: Multilateral negotiations like the Congress of Berlin aimed at resolving conflicts and redrawing borders but often failed to address underlying issues effectively.

Quiz

Open Thinking Questions

• How did religious differences contribute to conflicts within the Ottoman territories during this period?
• What role did European powers play in shaping the outcomes of nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire?
• In what ways did the Greek War of Independence set a precedent for future conflicts and political realignments?

Conclusion

The Eastern Question encapsulates a complex era marked by the decline of empires, the rise of nationalism, and shifting alliances among European powers. It highlights how local struggles could have far-reaching global consequences, setting the stage for further geopolitical instability in subsequent decades.