The End of Japan's Korean Campaigns: Transition to Cultural Subservience

Overview

In the seventh century, Japan experienced a significant shift after being expelled from Korea. This marked a prolonged phase where Japanese military influence in continental Asia waned, leading to an era characterized by cultural and intellectual dependence on China. Despite sending embassies to maintain trade and diplomatic ties up until the early ninth century, Japan’s final envoy declined service in 894 due to internal strife in China. This event symbolized a turning point as Japanese officials felt they no longer needed to emulate Chinese models of governance and culture.

Context

The seventh and eighth centuries saw a period of intense military and cultural competition between Japan, Korea, and China, centered around the Korean Peninsula. Silla, one of the three kingdoms in Korea (along with Goguryeo and Baekje), aligned itself closely with Tang Dynasty China to expel Japanese influence from the peninsula by the mid-seventh century. This marked a significant setback for Japan’s expansionist policies. Following this expulsion, Japan redirected its efforts towards strengthening internal political structures and cultural development through extensive borrowing from Chinese models.

Timeline

• 660 AD: The Korean kingdom of Silla unites with China to expel Japanese forces from the peninsula.
• 710 AD: Nara becomes Japan’s capital, marking a period of significant cultural and administrative reforms heavily influenced by Chinese culture.
• 838 AD: The last official Japanese embassy is sent to China.
• 894 AD: Sugawara no Michizane refuses his appointment as envoy due to political instability in China.
• 1200s: During the Kamakura period, Japan re-establishes formal diplomatic relations with China.

Key Terms and Concepts

• Embassy: A mission or group of people sent by one country to another for diplomatic purposes, often focused on trade and cultural exchange.
• Cultural Subservience: The state where a culture adopts the norms, values, and beliefs of another more dominant culture to such an extent that it loses much of its own identity.
• Silla Kingdom: One of the three kingdoms in Korea that united with China to expel Japanese influence by 660 AD.
• Tang Dynasty (China): A period from 618 to 907 AD known for extensive cultural and political influence over East Asia, including Japan.
• Nara Period: The first era of the Heian period, marked by significant Chinese influences on Japanese culture and governance.
• Kamakura Period: A historical period in Japan lasting from 1185 to 1333 AD when military rulers (shoguns) controlled the government.

Key Figures and Groups

• Sugawara no Michizane (845–903): Japanese scholar and politician known for his refusal to serve as envoy in China, marking a turning point in Japan’s cultural relationship with Tang Dynasty.
• Tang Dynasty: The ruling dynasty of China from 618 to 907 AD that exerted significant influence over East Asian politics, economy, and culture during the period of Japanese embassies.
• Silla Kingdom: A Korean kingdom that unified Korea under its rule in conjunction with Tang forces against Japan.
• Nara Court Officials: Members of the ruling class who promoted Chinese cultural and political models during the Nara Period.

Mechanisms and Processes

1. Military expulsion -> Cultural borrowing -> Diplomatic missions -> Internal resistance -> Relational hiatus
2. Japanese military campaigns fail in Korea (600s) -> Nara court adopts Chinese administrative systems (710-794) -> Extensive cultural exchange through embassies to Tang China (8th century) -> Sugawara no Michizane’s refusal due to internal chaos in Tang Dynasty (894) -> Restoration of diplomatic ties during the Kamakura period (13th century)

Deep Background

During the early Heian Period, Japan was heavily influenced by Chinese culture and political systems. The establishment of Nara as capital city led to significant reforms modeled after the Tang system of governance, including legal codes, administrative procedures, and cultural practices such as poetry and architecture. However, this period also witnessed a gradual shift towards more indigenous Japanese elements within borrowed frameworks. By the late Heian Period, internal political dynamics in Japan began influencing its relations with China, culminating in Sugawara no Michizane’s refusal to participate in further embassies due to perceived instability and lack of cultural benefits from Tang.

Explanation and Importance

The expulsion of Japan from Korea marked a significant turning point that shifted Japanese foreign policy towards more introspective and defensive strategies. The subsequent period saw extensive diplomatic missions aimed at maintaining cultural ties and trade relations with China, but this changed dramatically in 894 when Sugawara no Michizane declined his appointment as envoy due to the chaos within Tang Dynasty. This act symbolized Japan’s growing self-sufficiency and confidence in its own identity, marking a phase where it no longer felt compelled to emulate Chinese cultural models. The hiatus in formal relations lasted until the Kamakura Period when Japan re-established diplomatic ties, reflecting both internal political shifts and changing power dynamics in East Asia.

Comparative Insight

The Japanese experience of retreating from active military engagement with Korea after 660 AD can be compared to the later withdrawal of Mongol forces from Japan following their invasions at the end of the thirteenth century. Both events signify significant retreats in military ambition and shifts towards more defensive or introspective cultural policies, highlighting broader trends of regional hegemony influencing smaller polities.

Extended Analysis

Cultural Independence

Japan’s refusal to engage further with Tang China represents a pivotal moment when Japan began asserting its own cultural identity separate from Chinese influence. This move was driven by internal developments emphasizing native traditions and governance models that did not require external validation.

Political Stability

The period of reduced diplomatic activity also reflects the strengthening of domestic political structures in Japan, allowing for more autonomous decision-making without constant reliance on foreign models or support.

Economic Relevance

While cultural ties with China were severed temporarily, economic relationships continued to evolve independently. This allowed Japan to develop its own mercantile and trade networks within East Asia, reducing dependence on a single dominant partner.

Quiz

Open Thinking Questions

• What factors contributed to Japan’s growing cultural independence from Tang China during the late Heian Period?
• How did the political and economic dynamics between Japan, Korea, and China evolve after the expulsion of Japanese forces in Korea?
• In what ways did Sugawara no Michizane’s refusal impact long-term diplomatic relations and cultural exchanges between Japan and China?

Conclusion

The expulsion from Korea and subsequent withdrawal of diplomatic missions to Tang China symbolized a significant shift towards internal consolidation and cultural autonomy for Japan. This period marked the beginning of a phase where Japanese officials began to assert their own models of governance and culture, reducing reliance on external influences while still engaging economically within East Asia.

This expansion provides a comprehensive overview of Japan’s transition from military ambitions in Korea to an era of cultural independence during the late Heian Period, emphasizing key figures, events, and broader historical contexts.