The Flourishing of Indian Religious Thought: Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism

Overview

During a period marked by religious coarsening in India, Vedantic philosophy reached its zenith while Mahayana Buddhism developed new doctrines asserting the Buddha’s divinity. This era saw significant changes in religious thought, influenced by earlier deviations from traditional teachings that favored ritualism and popular appeal.

Context

The early medieval period in India was characterized by a complex interplay of cultural and religious developments. The decline of centralized empires led to increased regional influence, which facilitated the spread and evolution of various philosophical and religious traditions. Vedanta, an interpretation of Hindu scriptures that emphasizes non-dualism (Advaita) or monistic thought, gained prominence during this era. Meanwhile, Buddhist traditions also evolved significantly, with Mahayana Buddhism emerging as a distinct movement that reinterpreted the Buddha’s role and teachings to suit changing societal needs.

Timeline

• 4th century CE: Early emergence of devotional Hinduism (Bhakti) alongside traditional Brahmanical practices.
• 5th century CE: Advaita Vedanta begins to develop, with foundational texts like the Upanishads being interpreted in new ways.
• 6th century CE: Early Mahayana Buddhist texts start appearing, marking a shift towards more accessible religious doctrines.
• 7th century CE: The rise of influential figures like Shankara in Hindu philosophy and Nagarjuna in Buddhism solidifies their respective traditions.
• 8th century CE: Advaita Vedanta becomes widely accepted among educated classes and monastic circles.
• 9th century CE: Mahayana Buddhism flourishes with the spread of new texts such as the Lotus Sutra, emphasizing the Buddha’s divinity.
• 10th century CE: Syncretic practices begin to emerge, blending elements from Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism in regional religious traditions.
• 12th century CE: Philosophical debates intensify between Advaita Vedantins and Buddhist scholars at major intellectual centers like Nalanda.

Key Terms and Concepts

Vedanta

• The philosophical school derived from the Upanishads, emphasizing monism (the belief in a single reality underlying all phenomena) and the identification of individual souls with the ultimate reality (Brahman).

Advaita Vedanta

• A sub-school within Vedanta that asserts non-dualism: the idea that individual consciousness is identical to the universal Brahman.

Mahayana Buddhism

• One of the major schools of Buddhism, characterized by a broader canon of scriptures and an emphasis on compassion and devotion. It teaches that all beings can achieve Buddhahood through various means including becoming bodhisattvas.

Bodhisattva

• A being who has postponed their own enlightenment to help others reach it first, embodying the principle of compassion in Mahayana Buddhism.

Non-dualism (Advaita)

• The philosophical belief that reality is fundamentally one and undifferentiated. In Indian philosophy, this concept is central to Advaita Vedanta.

Brahman

• The ultimate reality or absolute existence that transcends all material manifestations according to Hindu philosophy, particularly in Advaita Vedanta.

Key Figures and Groups

Shankara (c. 788–820 CE)

• A renowned philosopher who systematized Advaita Vedanta and wrote commentaries on key Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras, solidifying its status as a major philosophical school.

Nagarjuna (ca. 150–250 CE)

• An influential Buddhist philosopher credited with founding the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, which emphasizes emptiness (sunyata).

Bhakti Movement Followers

• Devotees who embraced a personal and emotional approach to religion, emphasizing direct devotion to deities rather than ritualistic practices.

Mechanisms and Processes

-> Ritualism and Popular Appeal: Early deviations from Buddhist teachings led to the development of more accessible religious doctrines. -> Devotional Practices: The rise of Bhakti movements in Hinduism and devotional forms within Buddhism catered to a wider audience by emphasizing personal devotion over rigorous ascetic practices. -> Textual Interpretation: Scholars like Shankara reinterpreted existing texts to fit contemporary contexts, while Nagarjuna developed new interpretations for Mahayana Buddhism. -> Syncretic Practices: The blending of Vedantic and Buddhist ideas in regional traditions reflects the fluid nature of religious thought during this period.

Deep Background

The early medieval period (c. 4th–12th centuries CE) was a time of significant social, political, and cultural transformation in India. With the decline of large empires such as the Gupta Empire, regional kingdoms gained prominence, fostering diverse local practices and religious developments. This decentralization allowed for greater experimentation with religious ideas, leading to new interpretations within both Hinduism and Buddhism.

Advaita Vedanta emerged from this context by emphasizing the unity of individual consciousness with Brahman, a concept that appealed to educated classes seeking philosophical coherence in an increasingly fragmented society. Shankara’s work was crucial in systematizing these ideas, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding Advaita Vedanta.

Concurrently, Mahayana Buddhism underwent significant changes as it adapted to the needs of a broader audience. Early deviations from traditional teachings led to a focus on ritualism and popular appeal, culminating in the elevation of the Buddha’s status to that of a divine figure. This transformation was supported by influential figures like Nagarjuna who developed new philosophical concepts such as emptiness (sunyata), which allowed for greater flexibility in interpreting Buddhist doctrine.

Explanation and Importance

The flourishing of Vedantic philosophy and Mahayana Buddhism during this period reflects the dynamic nature of Indian religious thought. While some elements of religion were becoming coarser, others were evolving to meet the intellectual and spiritual needs of a changing society. The development of Advaita Vedanta provided a philosophical foundation for understanding the unity of reality, while the elevation of Buddha’s status in Mahayana Buddhism offered a new way to approach salvation through devotion and compassion.

These developments were significant not only because they shaped religious practices but also because they influenced broader cultural and intellectual trends. The syncretic blending of ideas between Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism illustrates how religious thought can adapt and evolve over time, often in response to social and political changes.

Comparative Insight

The development of Mahayana Buddhism during the early medieval period shares similarities with the rise of Christian mysticism in Europe around the same time. Both movements emphasized personal spiritual experiences and devotion over traditional rituals, reflecting broader societal shifts towards more individualistic forms of religious expression. However, while European mysticism often focused on direct communion with God, Mahayana Buddhism highlighted the role of bodhisattvas as intermediaries between the divine realm and ordinary beings.

Extended Analysis

Syncretism in Religious Thought

• The blending of ideas from different traditions (e.g., Vedanta and Mahayana) reflects a broader trend towards religious pluralism during this period. This syncretic approach allowed for greater flexibility and adaptability within religious practices.

Philosophical Foundations

• Key texts like the Brahma Sutras and early Mahayana scriptures were central to the development of these new philosophical schools, providing a textual basis for their teachings.

Social Implications

• The emphasis on devotion in both Advaita Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism made religious practices more accessible to a wider audience, including those outside traditional priestly classes.

Quiz

Open Thinking Questions

• How might the philosophical concepts of Advaita Vedanta have influenced other aspects of Indian culture during this period?
• In what ways did Mahayana Buddhism’s reinterpretation of the Buddha’s role impact its spread and acceptance among diverse populations?

Conclusion

The flourishing of Advaita Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism during the early medieval period highlights a time of significant religious development in India. These philosophical movements provided new frameworks for understanding reality, spirituality, and moral conduct, shaping both intellectual discourse and popular practices.