The Nineteenth-Century Decline of Ottoman Power

Overview

During the nineteenth century, Ottoman power significantly declined across Europe and Africa due to the rise of nationalism and European imperialism. Key events such as the Serbian revolt (1804) and Mehemet Ali’s rule in Egypt (1805) marked the beginning of this decline. In Europe, this period saw a series of national revolutions culminating in the establishment of new nation-states by 1914 when Turkey’s European territories were reduced to eastern Thrace. Meanwhile, Ottoman control over North Africa weakened considerably earlier in the century.

Context

The Ottoman Empire, which had been one of the world’s most powerful empires since its founding in the late 13th century, faced significant challenges during the nineteenth century as it struggled with internal and external pressures. The rise of nationalism within the empire’s diverse populations demanded greater autonomy or outright independence from Ottoman rule. Simultaneously, European powers sought to expand their influence through military interventions and economic exploitation. These factors combined to weaken Ottoman authority in both Europe and Africa.

Timeline

• 1804: Serbian revolt against Ottoman control begins.
• 1805: Mehemet Ali establishes himself as the governor of Egypt, challenging Ottoman rule.
• 1821: Greek War of Independence starts, marking a significant loss of territory for the Ottomans in Europe.
• 1830: France annexes Algeria, further reducing Ottoman influence in North Africa.
• 1876: The Treaty of Berlin officially recognizes an independent Bulgaria and Serbia within the Balkan region.
• 1908: Bosnia-Herzegovina is annexed by Austria-Hungary, leading to tensions with the Ottomans.
• 1912–1913: The First and Second Balkan Wars lead to significant territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire.
• 1914: By this time, the Ottoman Empire in Europe controls only eastern Thrace.

Key Terms and Concepts

Nationalism: A political ideology that emphasizes the collective identity of a nation based on shared language, culture, or history. It promotes the idea that nations should have their own sovereign states.

Imperialism: The policy practice of extending control over foreign nations through military force or economic dominance.

Ottoman Empire: An Islamic state centered in Turkey that lasted from the late 13th century until its dissolution after World War I. It was known for its vast territories stretching across Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Mehemet Ali Pasha (Muhammad Ali): A notable figure who ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1849, establishing a dynasty that lasted until the mid-20th century.

Serbian Revolt: The first major uprising against Ottoman rule in Southeastern Europe, beginning in 1804 and lasting until Serbia achieved independence.

Greek War of Independence (1821–1832): A conflict fought by Greek revolutionaries to win independence from the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the establishment of an independent Greece.

Balkan Wars: Two conflicts (1912-1913) fought between several Balkan states and the Ottoman Empire leading to significant territorial reconfigurations.

Key Figures and Groups

Mehemet Ali Pasha: A military leader who rose to power in Egypt, challenging Ottoman control. His rule marked a pivotal moment in the weakening of Ottoman authority in North Africa.

Serbian Revolutionaries (1804-1815): The insurgents led by figures like Karadjordje Petrović and Miloš Obrenović who fought for Serbian independence from the Ottomans.

Greek Freedom Fighters: Groups such as the Filiki Eteria, a secret society that planned and initiated the Greek War of Independence against Ottoman rule.

European Powers (e.g., France, Russia): These nations engaged in territorial disputes with the Ottoman Empire and sought to expand their influence through various means including military intervention and economic policies.

Mechanisms and Processes

• Nationalism -> Revolts: Nationalist sentiments among diverse populations within the empire led to revolts against centralized Ottoman rule.

• Revolts -> Loss of Territory: Successful nationalist uprisings resulted in significant territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire, as new nation-states emerged.

• European Imperialism -> Economic and Military Interventions: European powers used economic leverage and military force to undermine Ottoman control over strategic territories.

Deep Background

The Ottoman decline was a complex process influenced by several long-term trends. The empire’s rigid social structure, characterized by an elite class of military officials (Janissaries) and religious authorities, became increasingly outdated in the face of modernizing European states. Economic challenges exacerbated internal divisions; the Ottomans struggled with debt, inefficiencies in agriculture and industry, and competing trade routes that diminished their economic influence. Additionally, the rise of nationalism across Europe and Asia Minor created a series of revolts that further weakened Ottoman authority.

Explanation and Importance

The decline of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century was primarily driven by internal pressures from nationalist movements seeking independence and external pressures from European powers pursuing colonial expansion. The Serbian revolt, followed by Mehemet Ali’s rise in Egypt, signaled a shift towards decentralization within the empire. Subsequent revolts like that of Greece and later conflicts such as the Balkan Wars resulted in significant territorial losses for the Ottomans. This period marked a critical transition from an expansive Islamic state to fragmented nation-states, reshaping geopolitical dynamics across Europe and Africa.

Comparative Insight

The decline of Ottoman power can be compared to similar processes occurring elsewhere during this era. For example, the Austro-Hungarian Empire also faced significant challenges due to internal ethnic tensions and external pressures from rising powers like Germany and Russia. Both empires grappled with issues of national identity and foreign competition that ultimately led to their fragmentation.

Extended Analysis

National Identity Formation: The rise of nationalism within diverse populations pushed the Ottoman Empire towards decentralization, as groups sought to establish independent states based on shared ethnic or cultural identities.

European Colonial Expansion: European powers’ expansion into North Africa and the Balkans further weakened Ottoman control over these territories, highlighting the empire’s vulnerability in the face of Western imperialism.

Economic Underpinnings: The economic challenges faced by the Ottomans, including debt crises and inefficiencies in agriculture and industry, contributed to their inability to compete with modernizing European states.

Quiz

B) (*) Correct answer

Open Thinking Questions

• How might the Ottoman Empire have responded differently to nationalist uprisings in order to maintain control?

• What role did economic factors play in weakening Ottoman power compared to neighboring European states?

• Considering the long-term impact, what were the consequences of territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire’s political and social structures?

Conclusion

The nineteenth-century decline of the Ottoman Empire represents a pivotal moment in modern history. It marks the transition from an expansive Islamic state to fragmented nation-states across Europe and Africa, reshaping geopolitical dynamics and setting the stage for further conflicts in the twentieth century.